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From: Anne Murr <anne.murr@drake.edu>
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George,
Thank you for taking the time to clarify your thoughts and questions
in your response. You are compelling me to return to the literature
to clarify my information! (However, these time-consuming
conversations MUST become shorter!!!!)
I am a newcomer to adult literacy (I've been tutoring for 3 years and
am starting my 3rd year coordinating this Literacy Center.) I have
just completed coursework toward a masters degree in adult education
(emphasis adult literacy, or course) and have designed a study that
asks what is/are effective instruction(s) for adults with low
literacy skills. At present, I'm waiting for adults to enroll, and
it's taking time! It will be a year before I have results. So I
agree with you:
Effective strategies for teaching reading for adults is not a given.
I hope to have a more clear picture in due time though.
Keep in mind that researchers do not prove, they suggest, indicate,
etc. It is lay persons like us who take what we understand from the
research to try to prove things. I was a debater in my first college
life, and I must remind myself now, as a novice researcher, that I'm
not proving things, I am searching for truth. However, I do get
passionate about what I am learning!
Here's my response to your other "given" - that the causes of reading
failure are not known and "that phonemic awareness is important , but
not foundational, or the building block of literacy". The causes of
reading failure are known. In my lit review I began researching the
question, why do children fail to learn to read? The evidence from
researchers is very strong, many say conclusive, that it is a lack of
phonemic awareness and inability to segment (encode/spell) and blend
(decode) phonemes which must be in place for reading skills to
develop (Bradley & Bryant, 1983). Research in Great Britain, New
Zealand, Sweden, Denmark (Juel, 1988) as well as a large body of
research in this country, starting with Vellutino, Liberman &
Shankweiler, Torgesen and expanded by Bruck, Byrne & Ledez, Perfetti
in adult literacy support this view. (I'll include some references
at the end of this email.)
You might be interested in Pratt & Brady's 1988 study, "Relation of
phonological awareness to reading disabiity in children and adults,"
Journal of Educational Psychology, 3:319-323. They looked at good
and poor third grade readers and good and poor adult readers (in ABE
and in Literacy Volunteers tutoring in New Haven, Conn.) and found
that the low reading 3rd graders and adult poor readers perform
poorly on phonological processing tasks but not on an auditory
control task and word length tasks. In fact the adults scored more
poorly than the third grade poor readers.
Here's the Shaywitz complete reference: Shaywitz, et al. (1998)
Functional disruption in the organization of the brain for reading in
dyslexia. Neurobiology, 95, 2636-2641. Their method was quite
fascinating. Brain activity was measured while 61 adults (29
dyslexic-DYS and 32 nonimpaired readers - NI) were presented with 5
tasks. Tasks ranged from 1) matching sets of lines, 2) matching
series of letters, 3) single letter rhyme, 4) nonword rhyming, and 5)
categorizing words on the basis of meaning. NI readers showed
increasing activity in the posterior region (angular gyrus) as
phonological task (2-4) demands increased. The angular gyrus is
"considered pivotal in carrying out the cross-modal integrations
necessary for reading [i.e., mapping the visual precept of the print
onto the phonologic structure of the language]." (p 2640) DYS
readers brains did not show that increase, whereas the frontal region
(inferior frontal gyrus) did show increased activity, which is
similar to the brain patterns of persons who lost reading ability due
to stroke or tumor. This "may provide the neural signature for the
phonologic difficulties characterizing dyslexia." (p. 2640)
You haven't raised this point, but I did as I began my lit review:
Are adults with low literacy skills dyslexic? This evidence led me
to conclude that the answer is "Yes." Stanovich and Siegel (1994)
studied dyslexics with above average IQs (discrepant) and below
average IQs (garden variety poor readers). While reading levels
differed, they scored equally poorly on phonologic tasks. When I
read that I exclaimed, "Yeah!" Our poor readers don't have trouble
because they are quote/unquote, "dumb". It's because they truly
cannot process language effectively. Bruck found similar results
with college dyslexics.
Now to your issue of the higher percentage of poor readers in low
income populations. Here's where disadvantaged backgrounds come into
play. A study found that mothers who are college graduates provide
significantly more verbal stimulation (number and quality of words)
over the type of verbal communication mothers with and without high
school diplomas have with their infants and preschool children. I
don't have the reference for this, but I can get it. My background
is early childhood, and recent brain research points to the necessity
for stimulating sensory environments to enhance children's cognitive
functioning. Juel (1988) cites several studies that indicate that
playing word games, reading and singing rhymes (which foster
phonemic awareness), story reading, telling stories provide the basis
for future reading success. When the environment contains these
elements, they have a more powerful effect on later reading than do
the effects of IQ and socioeconomic status. In an analysis of 32
studies of phonologic instruction, it was found that phonemic
awareness and preschool story reading had the strongest effects on
future reading, with phonemic awareness being slightly stronger.
(Bus & van IJzendoorn, 1999.)
My guess is that low literacy skills are a causal factor in low
socioeconomic status, which has a causal effect on educational
opportunities, which have a causal effect on economic opportunities,
etc., etc. It's a cycle which must be addressed through early family
literacy intervention, adult literacy efforts, job training, etc.,
etc., etc. Kathleen, the chicken or the egg? Both!
Your statement that "reading is as much caught as a result of
unconscious assimilation through practice over time" is the basis of
whole language instruction. For those who have phonemic awareness,
Yes! On the other hand, the research is clear- written language does
not compute (will not be assimilated) for persons without phonemic
awareness.
Paulo Freire is a social theorist, not cognitive, and my
understanding of this part of his theory (I haven't read his works)
is that societies oppress the populace by withholding literacy
instruction-education as social policy. As Frederick Douglass said,
"Once you learn to read you will be forever free." We work with
persons who have been in school for at least six, if not 12, years
and still have failed to learn to read. What was withheld from them
was instruction which would remediate their deficits-phonologic,
vocabulary, comprehension, written expression. They need it all.
But phonology comes first. You said you have experienced reasonable
success with the assisted reading approach as "starting place." In
my fewer years of experience, I did not. My goal, as you stated, is
that adult literacy learners become "independent, fluent readers".
Can we accomplish that? The question is out there, but we don't have
the answer - yet.
On the other side of the issue, Glenn Young, on the LD NIFL listserv,
stated that it took him over 1000 hours and considerable expense to
learn to read. He contends that teaching LD adults to read is too
time consuming and that we should put our efforts into teaching them
other strategies for life success and give them the technological
supports they need to be more functional in the work place. In the
short term, forget the reading instruction, he states, and get them
on with their lives. I'm not ready to agree with that position, but
Glenn is one in the LD field who holds to that view.
Short term memory is a key, and what I'm understanding in my reading
is that short term memory actually holds the sounds (phonemes) of
words long enough for meaning to be extracted. So phonologic
processing also is a factor in memory. (Muter & Snowling, 1998).
You referred to Smith's writing that associations between visual and
nonvisual information come into play here. I have not read his work
but know that others have found that reading is more phonologically
based than visually.
I had a similar experience with a stately African American in his 60s
whose son brought him to see what our Center offered. He was
hesitant but when he found me to be straightforward and respectful,
he opened up and told me of his life experiences and ability to
function despite the ability to read. He seemed pleased that someone
would listen. Adults need a place that's safe in order to tell their
stories. Our literacy programs offer such a place. He has not yet
begun tutoring, so I can't say how he will respond to WRS
instruction. I just know that the 20 year old young man I've begun
tutoring is finding it "productive!" The WRS does offer text
reading, albeit controlled vocabulary, but text written with
adult-related topics. But that gives the new reader the opportunity
to practice learned skills. And by the way, 85% of the English
language is regular, i.e., follows the phonologic rules. It's the
other 15% that drive us crazy! (I didn't believe this statistic at
first but I've read it in many different publications, so I've come
to accept it.)
I agree with you, George. The questions we are raising here have
deep implications for how we deliver literacy services to adults.
Are we offering instruction and/or supports they need in order to be
more independent and productive? The issue, as you say, needs to be
better researched. I am embarking on such research in my little
corner of the world. I'll keep you posted.
Cordially,
Anne Murr
Coordinator, Adult Literacy Center
Drake University
Des Moines, IA 50311
anne.murr@drake.edu
Bibliography
Bradley & Bryant, 1983, Categorizing sounds and learning to read-a
causal connection, Nature, 301,419-421
Bruck, M. ((1998). Outcomes of adults with childhood histories of
dyslexia. In Hulme & Joshi, (Eds.) Reading and spelling, Maharch,
N.J.: L. Erlbaum.
Bruck, M. (1990). Word-recognition skills of adults with childhood
diagnoses of dyslexia. Developmental Psychology, 26, 439-454.
Bruck, M. (1990). Word-recognition skills of adults with childhood
diagnoses of dyslexia. Developmental Psychology, 26, 439-454.
Bruck, M. (1992.) Persistence of dyslexics' phonological awareness
deficits. Developmental Psychology, 28, 874-886.
Bruck, M. (1992.) Persistence of dyslexics' phonological awareness
deficits. Developmental Psychology, 28, 874-886.
Bruck, M. (1998). Outcomes of adults with childhood histories of
dyslexia. In Hulme & Joshi, (Eds.), Reading and spelling. Maharch,
N.J.: L. Erlbaum.
Bus, A.G. & van IJzendoorn. (1999) Phonological awareness and early
reading: A meta-analysis of experimental training studies. Journal
of Educationa.l Psychology, 91, 403-414.
Byrne, B. & Ledez, J. (1983). Phonological awareness in
reading-disabled adults. Australian Journal of Psychology, 35.
185-197.
Chall, J. Heron, E., & Hilferty, A. (1987). Adult literacy: New
and enduring problems, Phi Delta Kappan, 190-196.
Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of
43 children from first through fourth grades. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 80, 437-447.
Liberman, L. & Shankweiler, D. (1985). Phonology and the problems of
learning to read and write. Remedial and Special Education, 6, 8-17.
Muter & Snowling, 1998, Concurrent and longitudinal predictors of
reading: The role of metalinguistic and short-term memory skills,
Reading Research Quarterly, 33, 320-335.
Perfetti, C. A. & Marron, M.A. (1995). Learning to read: Literacy
acquisition by children and adults. National Center on Adult
Literacy, Technical Report
TR95-07.
Stanovich and Siegel (1994), ). Phenotypic performance profile of
children with reading disabilities: A regression-based test of the
phonological-core variable-difference model. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 86, 24-53)
Torgesen, J., Wagner, R., & Rashotte, C. (1994). Longitudinal
studies of phonological processing and reading. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 27, 276-286.
Torgesen, J.K. (1999) Phonologically based reading disabilities:
Toward a coherent theory of one kind of learning disability. In
Sternberg, R.J. & Swerling,L. (Eds.). Perspectives on Learning
Disabilities.
Torgesen, J.K., Wagner, R.K., Rashotte, C.A. (1997). Prevention and
remediation of severe reading disabilitites: Keeping the end in
mind. Journal of Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 217-234.
Torgesen, J.K., Wagner, R.K., Rashotte, C.A. (1999). Test of Word
Reading Efficiency. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Torgesen, J.K., Wagner, R.K., Rashotte, C.A., Lindamood, P., Rose,
E., Conway, T. & Garvan, C. (1999). Preventing reading failure in
young children with phonological processing disabilities; Group and
individual responses to instruction. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 91, 579-593.
Vellutino, F. (1979). Dyslexia: Theory and Research. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.
Vellutino, F., Steger, B., Moyer, S., Harding, C., & Niles, J.
(1977). Has the perceptual deficit hypothesis led us astray?
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 10, 376-385.
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<html><head><style type="text/css"><!--
blockquote, dl, ul, ol, li { margin-top: 0 ; margin-bottom: 0 }
--></style><title>Response to George</title></head><body>
<div><font face="Palatino" size="+1"
color="#000000">George,</font><font face="Times" size="+1"
color="#000000"><br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Thank you for
taking the time to clarify your thoughts and questions in your
response. You are compelling me to return to the literature to
clarify my information! (However, these time-consuming
conversations MUST become shorter!!!!)</font><br>
<font face="Times" size="+1" color="#000000"></font></div>
<div><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">I am a newcomer
to adult literacy (I've been tutoring for 3 years and am starting my
3rd year coordinating this Literacy Center.) I have just
completed coursework toward a masters degree in adult education
(emphasis adult literacy, or course) and have designed a study that
asks what is/are effective instruction(s) for adults with low
literacy skills. At present, I'm waiting for adults to enroll,
and it's taking time! It will be a year before I have
results. So I agree with you:</font></div>
<div><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Effective
strategies for teaching reading for adults is not a given. I
hope to have a more clear picture in due time though.</font><font
face="Times" size="+1" color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Keep in mind
that researchers do not prove, they suggest, indicate, etc. It
is lay persons like us who take what we understand from the research
to try to prove things. I was a debater in my first college
life, and I must remind myself now, as a novice researcher, that I'm
not proving things, I am searching for truth. However, I do get
passionate about what I am learning!</font><font face="Times"
size="+1" color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Here's my
response to your other "given" - that the causes of reading
failure are not known and "that phonemic awareness is important
, but not foundational, or the building block of
literacy". The causes of reading failure are known.
In my lit review I began researching the question, why do children
fail to learn to read? The evidence from researchers is very
strong, many say conclusive, that it is a lack of phonemic awareness
and inability to segment (encode/spell) and blend (decode) phonemes
which must be in place for reading skills to develop (Bradley &
Bryant, 1983). Research in Great Britain, New Zealand, Sweden,
Denmark (Juel, 1988) as well as a large body of research in this
country, starting with Vellutino, Liberman & Shankweiler,
Torgesen and expanded by Bruck, Byrne & Ledez, Perfetti in adult
literacy support this view. (I'll include some references at
the end of this email.) </font><font face="Times" size="+1"
color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">You might be
interested in Pratt & Brady's 1988 study, "Relation of
phonological awareness to reading disabiity in children and
adults,"<u> Journal of Educational Psychology,
3:319-323</u>. They looked at good and poor third grade readers
and good and poor adult readers (in ABE and in Literacy Volunteers
tutoring in New Haven, Conn.) and found that the low reading 3rd
graders and adult poor readers perform poorly on phonological
processing tasks but not on an auditory control task and word length
tasks. In fact the adults scored more poorly than the third
grade poor readers.</font><font face="Times" size="+1"
color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Here's the
Shaywitz complete reference: Shaywitz, et al. (1998) Functional
disruption in the organization of the brain for reading in
dyslexia.<u> Neurobiology, 95</u>, 2636-2641. Their method was
quite fascinating. Brain activity was measured while 61 adults
(29 dyslexic-DYS and 32 nonimpaired readers - NI) were presented with
5 tasks. Tasks ranged from 1) matching sets of lines, 2)
matching series of letters, 3) single letter rhyme, 4) nonword
rhyming, and 5) categorizing words on the basis of meaning. NI
readers showed increasing activity in the posterior region (angular
gyrus) as phonological task (2-4) demands increased. The
angular gyrus is "considered pivotal in carrying out the
cross-modal integrations necessary for reading [i.e., mapping the
visual precept of the print onto the phonologic structure of the
language]." (p 2640) DYS readers brains did not show that
increase, whereas the frontal region (inferior frontal gyrus) did
show increased activity, which is similar to the brain patterns of
persons who lost reading ability due to stroke or tumor. This
"may provide the neural signature for the phonologic
difficulties characterizing dyslexia." (p. 2640)</font><font
face="Times" size="+1" color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">You haven't
raised this point, but I did as I began my lit review: Are
adults with low literacy skills dyslexic? This evidence led me
to conclude that the answer is "Yes." Stanovich and
Siegel (1994) studied dyslexics with above average IQs (discrepant)
and below average IQs (garden variety poor readers). While
reading levels differed, they scored equally poorly on phonologic
tasks. When I read that I exclaimed, "Yeah!"
Our poor readers don't have trouble because they are quote/unquote,
"dumb". It's because they truly cannot process
language effectively. Bruck found similar results with college
dyslexics.</font><font face="Times" size="+1"
color="#000000"></font></div>
<div><font face="Times" size="+1" color="#000000"><br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Now to your
issue of the higher percentage of poor readers in low income
populations. Here's where disadvantaged backgrounds come into
play. A study found that mothers who are college
graduates provide significantly more verbal stimulation (number and
quality of words) over the type of verbal communication mothers with
and without high school diplomas have with their infants and
preschool children. I don't have the reference for this, but I
can get it. My background is early childhood, and recent brain
research points to the necessity for stimulating sensory environments
to enhance children's cognitive functioning. Juel (1988) cites
several studies that indicate that playing word games, reading and
singing rhymes (which foster phonemic awareness), story
reading, telling stories provide the basis for future reading
success. When the environment contains these elements, they
have a more powerful effect on later reading than do the effects of
IQ and socioeconomic status. In an analysis of 32 studies of
phonologic instruction, it was found that phonemic awareness and
preschool story reading had the strongest effects on future reading,
with phonemic awareness being slightly stronger. (Bus
& van IJzendoorn, 1999.)</font><font face="Times" size="+1"
color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">My guess is
that low literacy skills are a causal factor in low socioeconomic
status, which has a causal effect on educational opportunities, which
have a causal effect on economic opportunities, etc., etc. It's
a cycle which must be addressed through early family literacy
intervention, adult literacy efforts, job training, etc., etc.,
etc. Kathleen, the chicken or the egg? Both!</font><font
face="Times" size="+1" color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Your statement
that "reading is as much caught as a result of unconscious
assimilation through practice over time" is the basis of whole
language instruction. For those who have phonemic awareness,
Yes! On the other hand, the research is clear- written
language does not compute (will not be assimilated) for persons
without phonemic awareness. </font><font face="Times" size="+1"
color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Paulo Freire
is a social theorist, not cognitive, and my understanding of this
part of his theory (I haven't read his works) is that societies
oppress the populace by withholding literacy instruction-education
as social policy. As Frederick Douglass said, "Once you learn
to read you will be forever free." We work with persons who
have been in school for at least six, if not 12, years and still have
failed to learn to read. What was withheld from them was
instruction which would remediate their deficits-phonologic,
vocabulary, comprehension, written expression. They need it
all. But phonology comes first. You said you have
experienced reasonable success with the assisted reading approach as
"starting place." In my fewer years of experience, I
did not. My goal, as you stated, is that adult literacy
learners become "independent, fluent readers". Can we
accomplish that? The question is out there, but we don't have
the answer - yet.</font><font face="Times" size="+1"
color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">On the other
side of the issue, Glenn Young, on the LD NIFL listserv, stated that
it took him over 1000 hours and considerable expense to learn to
read. He contends that teaching LD adults to read is too time
consuming and that we should put our efforts into teaching them other
strategies for life success and give them the technological supports
they need to be more functional in the work place. In the short
term, forget the reading instruction, he states, and get them on with
their lives. I'm not ready to agree with that position, but
Glenn is one in the LD field who holds to that view.</font><font
face="Times" size="+1" color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Short term
memory is a key, and what I'm understanding in my reading is that
short term memory actually holds the sounds (phonemes) of words long
enough for meaning to be extracted. So phonologic processing
also is a factor in memory. (Muter & Snowling, 1998).
You referred to Smith's writing that associations between visual and
nonvisual information come into play here. I have not read his
work but know that others have found that reading is more
phonologically based than visually.</font><br>
<font face="Times" size="+1" color="#000000"></font></div>
<div><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">I had a similar
experience with a stately African American in his 60s whose son
brought him to see what our Center offered. He was hesitant but
when he found me to be straightforward and respectful, he opened up
and told me of his life experiences and ability to function despite
the ability to read. He seemed pleased that someone would
listen. Adults need a place that's safe in order to tell their
stories. Our literacy programs offer such a place. He has
not yet begun tutoring, so I can't say how he will respond to WRS
instruction. I just know that the 20 year old young man I've
begun tutoring is finding it "productive!" The WRS
does offer text reading, albeit controlled vocabulary, but text
written with adult-related topics. But that gives the new
reader the opportunity to practice learned skills. And by the
way, 85% of the English language is regular, i.e., follows the
phonologic rules. It's the other 15% that drive us crazy!
(I didn't believe this statistic at first but I've read it in many
different publications, so I've come to accept it.)</font></div>
<div><font face="Times" size="+1" color="#000000"><br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">I agree with
you, George. The questions we are raising here have deep
implications for how we deliver literacy services to adults.
Are we offering instruction and/or supports they need in order to be
more independent and productive? The issue, as you say, needs
to be better researched. I am embarking on such research in my
little corner of the world. I'll keep you posted.</font><font
face="Times" size="+1" color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1"
color="#000000">Cordially,</font></div>
<div><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Anne
Murr</font></div>
<div><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Coordinator,
Adult Literacy Center</font></div>
<div><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Drake
University</font></div>
<div><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Des Moines, IA
50311</font></div>
<div><font face="Palatino" size="+1"
color="#000000">anne.murr@drake.edu</font></div>
<div><font face="Times" size="+1" color="#000000"><br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1"
color="#000000"><u>Bibliography</u></font><font face="Times"
size="+1" color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Bradley &
Bryant, 1983, Categorizing sounds and learning to read-a causal
connection,<u> Nature, 301</u>,419-421</font><font face="Times"
size="+1" color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Bruck, M.
((1998). Outcomes of adults with childhood histories of dyslexia. In
Hulme & Joshi, (Eds.)<i> Reading and spelling,</i> Maharch, N.J.:
L. Erlbaum.</font><font face="Times" size="+1" color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Bruck, M.
(1990). Word-recognition skills of adults with childhood diagnoses of
dyslexia. <u> Developmental Psychology, 26</u><i>,</i>
439-454.</font><font face="Times" size="+1" color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Bruck, M.
(1990). Word-recognition skills of adults with childhood diagnoses of
dyslexia. <i> Developmental Psychology, 26,</i>
439-454.</font><font face="Times" size="+1" color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Bruck, M.
(1992.) Persistence of dyslexics' phonological awareness deficits.<u>
Developmental Psychology, 28</u><i>,</i> 874-886.</font><font
face="Times" size="+1" color="#000000"><br>
<br>
</font><font face="Palatino" size="+1" color="#000000">Bruck, M.
(1992.) Persistence of dyslexics' phonological awareness deficits.<i>
Developmental Psychology, 28,</i> 874-886.</font><font
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